Ammonia is the main product of the fertilizer industry. Developing countries account for the majority of worldwide production. About 77% of ammonia production is based on steam reforming of natural gas, with most of the remaining production based on heavy-oil or coal-based processes. A further shift from heavy-oil or coal-based to gas-based processes can strongly reduce energy use and emissions.
Ammonia is synthesized from nitrogen and hydrogen. The required nitrogen is obtained from the air and hydrogen is mostly produced from natural gas in a steam reforming process.
The International Energy Agency estimates that 77% of ammonia production is based on natural gas. Another 14%, mainly in China, is based on coal gasification. India and China also use partial oxidation of oil products and heavy hydrocarbon fractions (IEA, 2007). Gas-based processes are the most energy efficient. Heavy-oil processes typically use 1.3 times as much energy and coal based processes even 1.7 times as much (IEA, 2007). Replacing old ammonia production capacity by new natural gas-based steam reforming processes can therefore strongly improve energy efficiency and reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Gas-based technologies are widely used in all regions of the world. The technology is supplied by a limited number of companies and new plants tend to operate at comparable energy efficiency. The most energy efficient technology available is the auto-thermal reforming process, which combines partial oxidation and steam reforming technology and uses about 28 GJ/ton (IPCC, 2007).
A requirement for the use of gas-based technology is the availability of natural gas at a competitive price.
Almost all nitrogen fertilisers are based on ammonia. Production has been on the rise in developing countries which have a high fertiliser demand. In 1974, developing countries accounted for only 27 % of ammonia production capacity. By 1998 this share had increased to 51% (IPPC, 2007).
Global ammonia production was 125 million tonnes in 2008 with China being the world’s largest ammonia producer (IFA, 2010). In China, about 70% of ammonia is derived from coal, 10% from oil products and 20% from natural gas. Coal-based processes are used in small-scale and medium sized plants.
India is the second largest ammonia producer. About two-thirds of production capacity there is based on natural gas. The remainder uses naphtha and fuel oil. Gas-based plants in India use on average 36,5 GJ/ton ammonia.
Mainly because of the differences in the type of feedstock, large differences exist between the energy intensity of ammonia production in different regions of the world (Table 1). But at gas-based plants many different energy efficiency improvement measures are also possible (IPPC, 2007).
| Region | Energy intensity (GJ/t NH3) | Region | Energy intensity (GJ/t NH3) |
|---|---|---|---|
|
Western Europe |
35.0 |
Other Asia |
37.0 |
|
North America |
37.9 |
Latin America |
36.0 |
|
Commonwealth of Independent States |
39.9 |
Africa |
36.0 |
|
Central European countries |
43.6 |
Middle East |
36.0 |
|
China |
48.8 |
Oceania |
36.0 |
|
India |
43.3 |
World |
41.6 |
The International Energy Agency estimates that in 2004, total energy and feedstock use for ammonia production amounted to 4,3 Exajoules of natural gas, 0,6 Exajoules of oil and 1,2 Exajoules of coal. Ammonia production is therefore responsible for about 20% of all energy consumption in the chemical industry.
Environmental benefits of switching to gas-based processes are reduced emission of CO2 and improved energy efficiency. But there may be an adverse effect on energy security when oil and coal are more readily available than natural gas.
A steady supply of affordable fertilizers is essential for the development of agriculture. Modernizing or replacing older and less efficient plants can help fertiliser industries to stay competitive. However, new ammonia plants require large capital investments.
Prices of fuels vary from country to country. but generally speaking, natural gas costs make up 70-90% of the ammonia production costs (IEA, 2007). Whether higher gas prices result in higher ammonia prices depends on the global supply situation, so the choice of fuel can have an important impact on the profitability of the industry. A fuel switch is a fundamental process change, which requires large investments. However, modernizing or replacing older and less efficient plants can be profitable investment decisions in the long term. (IEA, 2007)
Energy research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN), Policy Studies
Stanford researchers have developed a method for converting ammonia in wastewater into nitrogen gas while simultaneously generating power in a bioreactor system. This method produces energy from carbon and nitrogen waste and provides significant cost and energy savings over current options.
ACES21 provides both energy saving and plant cost reduction in urea production supported by the following features:
Biogas production from protein-rich animal industry wastes is technically not feasible although these substrates have very high biogas potential. These organic waste and side product materials are currently not used in biogas fermenters because of the toxic effect on microbes by the ammonia that is released as a fermentation by-product. The literature strongly recommends against the use of protein-based materials as a substrate in biogas reactors. Researchers at the University of Szeged have developed an effective solution to this problem.
Background: Converting plant cellulose and hemicellulose into fermentable sugars is a major bottleneck in the biofuel industry. Chemical pretreatment and enzyme hydrolysis (breakdown) usually are required. Among chemical pretreatments ammonia fiber expansion (AFEX) alkaline pretreatment has many advantages. For example it is a dry process and results in cleaved lignin-carbohydrate complexes without physical extraction. A variation on the process called extractive AFEX leads to the production of ‘cellulose III’ an artificial form of cellulose that may be easier to break down.
Researchers at the University of Tennessee have developed transgenic luminescent zebrafish. The gene cassette used to create the luminescence can be engineered to express exclusively in the presence of a particular compound or pollutant in the zebrafish’s environment thus functioning as a bioluminescent environmental reporter. The zebrafish can be additionally engineered to emit light in response to elevated ammonia or nitrate levels in an aquarium or tank to signal necessary cleaning or water changes.
Cellulosic biomass is not dense enough to be transported economically over long distances. The treated biomass must be compressed to increase its density. However when compressed the biomass tends not to bind sufficiently. Additionally current additives used to increase binding characteristics of the biomass are expensive. Michigan State University’s invention allows for the inexpensive binding of cellulosic biomass. This invention adds value to the Gaseous Ammonia Pretreatment (GAP) process (090068) developed by the inventor.
Hydrogen is a clean and environmentally-friendly energy carrier. A major obstacle for the development of hydrogen powered vehicles is the lack of safe light weight and energy efficient means for on-board hydrogen storage. Ammonia borane (AB) is a promising hydrogen storage material for vehicles powered by fuel cells. A fuel cell is a device that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into electricity. Hydrogen is released from AB via thermal decomposition; however this process produces excessive heat and unfavorable byproducts.
Nickel and its intermetallics/alloys with other metals are well known materials for electrooxidation of hydrazine. Nickel is unique element that has an electronic structure that allows it to behave as “noble” element for example to be active in the reaction of electrooxidation of different fuels. However in fuel cell operations unsupported nickel based materials possess a number of disadvantages in electrooxidation of hydrazine. The main drawbacks are low catalytic surface utilization small amount of active sites and high rate of ammonia production.
Aquaculture involves the farming of organisms in water. Aquaculture systems that produce aquatic organisms year round in a closed controlled environment require significantly fewer land and water resources than open systems like pond net-pen and flow-through culture systems. Closed recirculating aquacultures also yield minimal effluent discharge which decreases contamination of nearby areas. These characteristics allow for construction and operation almost anywhere including within cities and close to major markets.
This patented dense catalytic membrane is designed to retrofit existing pulverized coal power plants for large-scale postcombustion carbon capture. The technology takes advantage of the nitrogen (N2) driving force and high temperatures of flue gas to effectively remove N2 and isolate CO2 for transport and storage. Compared to the current amine scrubbing techniques (e.g. MEA-based systems) of a similar scale the proposed membrane approach would have lower capital costs and land requirements with decreased parasitic power loads.